Creating Modules

Earlier, we said that there are two ways for a module to make its interface available to your program: by exporting symbols or by allowing method calls. We'll show you an example of the first style here; the second style is for object-oriented modules and is described in the next chapter. (Object-oriented modules should export nothing, since the whole idea of methods is that Perl finds them for you automatically, based on the type of the object.)

To construct a module called Bestiary, create a file called Bestiary.pm that looks like this:

package Bestiary; require Exporter; our @ISA = qw(Exporter); our @EXPORT = qw(camel); # Symbols to be exported by default our @EXPORT_OK = qw($weight); # Symbols to be exported on request our $VERSION = 1.00; # Version number ### Include your variables and functions here sub camel {
 print "One-hump dromedary"
}
$weight = 1024; 1;

You can also create modules that dynamically load code written in C. See "Internals and Externals", for details.

Module Privacy and the Exporter

Perl does not automatically patrol private/public borders within its modules--unlike languages such as C++, Java, and Ada, Perl isn't obsessed with enforced privacy. A Perl module would prefer that you stay out of its living room because you weren't invited, not because it has a shotgun.

The module and its user have a contract, part of which is common law and part of which is written. Part of the common law contract is that a module refrain from changing any namespace it wasn't asked to change. The written contract for the module (that is, the documentation) may make other provisions. But then, having read the contract, you presumably know that when you say use RedefineTheWorld you're redefining the world, and you're willing to risk the consequences. The most common way to redefine worlds is to use the Exporter module. As we'll see later in the chapter, you can even redefine built-ins with this module.

When you use a module, the module typically makes some variables or functions available to your program, or more specifically, to your program's current package. This act of exporting symbols from the module (and thus importing them into your program) is sometimes called polluting your namespace. Most modules use Exporter to do this; that's why most modules say something like this near the top:

require Exporter; our @ISA = ("Exporter");

our @EXPORT = qw($camel %wolf ram); # Export by default our @EXPORT_OK = qw(leopard @llama $emu); # Export by request our %EXPORT_TAGS = ( # Export as group camelids => [qw($camel @llama)], critters => [qw(ram $camel %wolf)], );

From the viewpoint of the exporting module, the @EXPORT array contains the names of variables and functions to be exported by default: what your program gets when it says use Bestiary. Variables and functions in @EXPORT_OK are exported only when the program specifically requests them in the use statement. Finally, the key/value pairs in %EXPORT_TAGS allow the program to include particular groups of the symbols listed in @EXPORT and @EXPORT_OK.

From the viewpoint of the importing package, the use statement specifies a list of symbols to import, a group named in %EXPORT_TAGS, a pattern of symbols, or nothing at all, in which case the symbols in @EXPORT would be imported from the module into your program.

You can include any of these statements to import symbols from the Bestiary module:

use Bestiary; # Import @EXPORT symbols use Bestiary (); # Import nothing use Bestiary qw(ram @llama); # Import the ram function and @llama array use Bestiary qw(:camelids); # Import $camel and @llama use Bestiary qw(:DEFAULT); # Import @EXPORT symbols use Bestiary qw(/am/); # Import $camel, @llama, and ram use Bestiary qw(/^\$/); # Import all scalars use Bestiary qw(:critters !ram); # Import the critters, but exclude ram use Bestiary qw(:critters !:camelids); # Import critters, but no camelids

You can say BEGIN { $Exporter::Verbose=1 } to see how the specifications are being processed and what is actually being imported into your package.

The Exporter is itself a Perl module, and if you're curious you can see the typeglob trickery it uses to export symbols from one package into another. Inside the Export module, the key function is named import, which performs the necessary aliasing to make a symbol in one package appear to be in another. In fact, a use BestiaryLIST statement is exactly equivalent to:

BEGIN {
 require Bestiary; import Bestiary LIST;
}

Exporting without using Exporter's import method

The Exporter defines a method called export_to_level, used for situations where (for some reason) you can't directly call Exporter's import method. The export_to_level method is invoked like this:

MODULE->export_to_level($where_to_export, @what_to_export);

For example, suppose our Bestiary had an import function of its own:

package Bestiary; @ISA = qw(Exporter); @EXPORT_OK = qw ($zoo); sub import {
 $Bestiary::zoo = "menagerie";
}

sub import {
 $Bestiary::zoo = "menagerie"; Bestiary->export_to_level(1, @_);
}

Version checking

If your module defines a $VERSION variable, a program using your module can ensure that the module is sufficiently recent. For example:

use Bestiary 3.14; # The Bestiary must be version 3.14 or later use Bestiary v1.0.4; # The Bestiary must be version 1.0.4 or later

Managing unknown symbols

In some situations, you may want to prevent certain symbols from being exported. Typically, this applies to modules that have functions or constants that might not make sense on some systems. You can prevent the Exporter from exporting those symbols by placing them in the @EXPORT_FAIL array.

If a program attempts to import any of these symbols, the Exporter gives the module an opportunity to handle the situation before generating an error. It does this by calling an export_fail method with a list of the failed symbols, which you might define as follows (assuming your module uses the Carp module):

sub export_fail {
 my $class = shift; carp "Sorry, these symbols are unavailable: @_";
return @_;
}

Tag-handling utility functions

Since the symbols listed within %EXPORT_TAGS must also appear in either @EXPORT or @EXPORT_OK, the Exporter provides two functions to let you add those tagged sets of symbols:

%EXPORT_TAGS = (foo => [qw(aa bb cc)], bar => [qw(aa cc dd)]); Exporter::export_tags('foo'); # add aa, bb and cc to @EXPORT Exporter::export_ok_tags('bar'); # add aa, cc and dd to @EXPORT_OK